angielski - History of Balkans

Ines

Pierwszy referat (z grupy I jakby się kto pytał) Proponuje tutaj udostępniać każdy następny, o ile się nie przesłyszałam ma być z tego sprawdzian później!! Ale już na ocenę niestety... Sad

History of the Balkans till X-XI century

Balkans is an area of southeastern Europe situated at a major crossroads between mainland Europe and the Near East.

1. Early cultures of the Balkans were most agricultural. The Indo-European invasion began around 2000 BC, by conquering the local cultures , using the advantage of better weapons and the use of horses.
The first Greek tribe to arrive in Greece were probably the Achaeans, around 2200-1900 BC. Achaeans created the Mycenaean civilization which was the earliest Indo-European civilization in the Balkans.

2. The Balkan Region in the 1st century c.e. was inhabited by four mains ethnic groups:
--> The Hellenic Culture – represented by Greeks and Macedonians.
--> Thracians (Trakowie) – composed by several tribes, dwelled in the eastern half of the Balkans. Dacians were a Thracians group of tribes settled north of the Danube (Dunaj).
--> Illyrians (Iliria) inhabited on the western (zach.) half, between Macedonia and Pannonia.
--> The Yazyg, a Sarmatic tribe that dwelled in the region north of the Illyrians (Pannonia). They were the first ancestors of modern Hungarians in Europe.

3. After the period that followed the arrival the Dorians (Dorowie), known as the Greek Dark Ages, the classical Greek culture developed in the southern Balkan peninsula. Hellenistic culture spread throughout the empire created by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. The Greeks were the first to established a system of trade routs in the Balkans and by the end of the 4th century BC Greek language and culture were dominant not only in the Balkans but also around the whole Eastern Mediterranean.

4. The other peoples of the Balkans organized themselves in large tribal unions, such as the Thracian Odrysian Empire, created in the 5th century BC or Dacia. Illyrian tribes were situated in the area corresponding to today’s Yugoslavia and Albania.

5. The Roman Empire.

Starting in the 2nd century BC the rising Roman Empire began annexing the Balkan area, transforming it into one of the Empire’s most prosperous regions.

Beginning in the 3rd century AD, Rome’s frontiers in the Balkans were weakened because of political and economic disorders within the Empire.
Waves of non-Roman peoples, such as Huns, Goths and Visigoths, Gepids or Lombards began to cross into the territory as invaders. Those ‘barbarian’ tribes passed through the Balkans and most of them did not leave any lasting state.

6. Middle Ages.

Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle-Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. Byzantium may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire which ended its thousand-year history in 1453. The Emperor Justinian’s formation of a new code of law, The Corpus Juris Civilis, had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence. Early Byzantine’ Orthodox Christianity spread to various Slavic people, where it still is a predominant religion. Such modern-day countries are for example: Armenia, Bulgaria, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Serbia.

7. When the Slavs appeared in Balkans.

The Slavs migrated in successive waves. Small numbers might have moved down as early as the 3rd century. However the bulk of migration occur in late 500s AD.

Most historians and archeologists support the theory that the Slavic homeland originated in areas of southern Poland. In antiquity, the Balkans were already occupied by Illyrian and Thracian tribes but many of them were Latinised or Hellenised. The Slavs assimilated many of the native Balkan people.

The Croats and the Serbs arrived between 610 and 641.

The Serbs settled over lands in Bosnia, Doclea and Pagania and were Christianized by 900s AD, largely by the missions of Saint Cyril and Methodius. After the Great Schism of 1054, eastern areas were influenced by Greek Orthodox church, whereas the Adriatic areas were Latin rite.

The Croat tribes settled in the Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. They soon found themselves surrounded by powerful and threatening neighbors: The Franks to the northwest, Avars in the northeast, Byzantines trying to maintain control of the Dalmatian coast and Bulgarians to the southeast. After many conflicts with those neighbors the Croatian Kingdom occurred between 923 and 928, covering Dalmatia, the majority of Bosnia and Pannonia.

The Avars were probably a Turkic group, they entered Pannonia in the 600s AD, forcing the Lombards to escape to Italy. By the 900s, the Avar confederacy collapsed due to internal conflicts, Frankish and Slavic attacks. They were absorbed by the Slavs and Magyars (Wegrzy).

The Bulgars are a people of Central Asia. The major Bulgar wave commenced with the arrival of Asparuh’s Bulgars. Asparuh was one of the Great Khan’s successors.

Bulgaria started to play a more and more important role in European Southeast. After defeating the Avars in 804, Khan Krum added to Bulgaria Transylvania, eastern Panonia and a part of Serbia. He continued territorial expansion conquering Thrace and Macedonia. By the middle of the 9th century, the Bulgars and the Slavs had already coalesced (zjednoczyc sie) to one people - the Bulgarians. They spoke a Slavic language with a minor admixture of Bulgar words. In 886 AD Bulgaria adopted the Glagolitic alphabet which was devised by the Byzantine missionaries Saint Cyril and Methodius in the 850s.

TheBrightSideOfTheTito

“The history of Balkans between 11th and 13th century”

The history of Balkan area between 11th and 13th century is very complicated and stormy and includes countries such nations as Albanian, Bulgarian, Montenegrin, Macedonian, Serbian and Croatian. I will discuss each country one after one.

Bulgaria was under the rule of Byzantium from 1018 till 1185, in spite of many national risings. The Greeks considered inhabitants as barbarians and felt disgust for them. The Bulgarians had to pay high taxes for the tsar and they were sent far away from their homes to fight against enemys of Byzantium. It was the reason of conflicts between indigenous population and invader. The first big rising broke out in 1037 after the death of slavic archibishop Iwan, when the new, Greek, was designated. It expanded to whole Balkans and northern Greece when, during the rule of Bulgarian tsar, Piotr Deljan, prince Alusian was also proclaimed as a ruler. The rising lasted till 1041, till the exoculating of Piotr Deljan by his opponent. The second half of the XI. became more dangerous than the last one, because Byzantium was attacked many times by the Hungarians and Tartars. This situation let the Bulgarians to make a new rising, which took place in 1072, but it was quickly finished. Next rising was in 1074, 1079 and 1084. In 1096 and 1147 threw the Bulgarian area were the place, where crusade were going over. Crusaders were plundering, setting fire and raping, but his commander did nothing to hold back it, becasue he also considered Bulgarians as backward people and heretics. Bulgaria recovered independendence in 1185 after assasination of Andronikos, the last tsar from Komnenos’ dynasty. Kaloyan, tsar whose rule happen from 1197 to 1207, played a big role in the history of Bulgaria. He corresponded with pope Innocent III, who send his legate to crowned Kaloyan in 1204. When Baldwin I became the tsar of Byzantium, he announced that Bulgaria belong to the empire. Kaloyan got up steam and invaded Thracia. Crusaders were beaten in a huge battle of Adrianopole in 1205. After the rule of Kaloyan, the power took his nephew, Boril, who wanted to eradicate heresy of bogomilism. He wasn’t popular among people and was dethroned in 1218. His place took Ivan Asen II, thanks to whom Bulgaria again became a rich country, but unfortunately, after his death country once again started to go downhill. During 40 years Bulgaria had 6 rulers, was attacked by the Mongolians and Hungarians and peasants were abusing. All those reasons were a cause of the next rising in 1277 commanded by Ivailo. He was a hobnail and in a short period of time become a tsar of Bulgaria. It was an evenement in the history. But his carrer finished very quickly, because his former followers discovered the real face of the tsar. In the XIII century Bulgaria was in the shadow of Serbia in the matter of arts and economy, which was one of the reasons of Bulgarian collaps. One of the last tsars in the XIII century was Georgi Terter (1280-1292) who allied with Charles I of Naples against Byzantium, but they lost and became Tartarian vassal.

At the beggining of the XI century Serbia, composited of Raška, Doclea, Bosnia, Pagania, Travunia and Zahumlje, was ruled by the Byzantines. In 1050, Mihailo Voislavljevic re-took Raška from the Byzantines, made himself grand Prince of Raška and his brother Radoslav as Prince of Zeta. He received royal insignia from Pope Gregory XII in 1077. He was proclaimed King of Serbs, Tribals and Dalmatia. The ruler, who expanded east and south into Bulgaria conquering Kosovo & Macedonia, was Constantin Bodin. His merit was also establishing vassalage in Bosnia and Raška. Constantin Bodin, later tsar Petar III, was crowned as a Tsar of Bulgarians, despite the fact that Byzantine re-claimed these lands. After his death, there was struggle for succesion. It weakned Doclea and led to succesion of Bosnia and Zahlumje. The one, who arose out of the succession crisis was Stjepan Nemanja. He created a country with central state - Raška and incorporated Zeta, Zahumlje and new territories to the south. Stefan Njemanja also was in a good relationships with the pope. From his times Doclea was ruled by the next-in-line to the Grand throne.

Croatia from 1059 was ruled by Petar Krešimir IV, who recovered The Croatian Kingdom and reached its peak territorially. His succedor was his relative Zvonomir. After his death in 1091, Hungarian King Ladislaw I claimed the throne, because his sister Jelena was Zvonomir’s widow. The Croatian dukes managed to maintain independence until King Kalman invaded Croatia. Although his take-over was not complete, the nobles accepted union with Hungary after the death of Petar Svačić (the last Croatian king) in battle. Croatia was still considered a separate kingdom.

Bosnia fell temporarily under Bulgarian rule, only for the Byzantines to re-establish their authority in 1019. It then briefly fell under Croatian influence in the 1060s, under Kresimir IV. Constantin Bodin from Doclea then conquered it and emplaced his own vassal to rule Bosnia. After his death in 1101, Bosnia’s bans tried to rule for themselves, free from Serbian or Croatian vassalage or influence. However, they would all too often find themselves in a fights between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire.

The first recorded Ban was Ban Boric, vassal of the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a succession crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1166, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and emplaced their own vassal as Ban – Kulin, who was a successful ruler. Thanks to him there was economic growth in Bosnia and he allied himself with Hungary and his relative Stefan Nemanja of Serbia to drive the Byzantines out of the land. After his death in 1204, he was succeeded by his son Stephan. Stephen was a staunch Catholic, and proved unpopular by the many Bosnian Church aligned nobles, who deposed him. After he died, Hungary placed his cousin Prijezda on the throne. He was a Catholic that converted to Bogomilism, and then converted back to Catholicism. To prove his fidelity, he energetically persecuted the heretics.

TheBrightSideOfTheTito

The history of Balkans between 14th and 15th century

bulgaria
From 1300 under Emperor Theodore Svetoslav Bulgaria regained its strength, but by the end of the fourteenth century the country had disintegrated into several feudal principalities and was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire. A Polish-Hungarian crusade under the rule of Władysław III of Poland to free the Balkans was crushed in 1444 in the battle of Varna.
The five centuries of Ottoman rule featured great violence and oppression[. The Ottomans decimated the Bulgarian population, which lost most of its cultural relics. Large towns and the areas where Ottoman power was strong were severely depopulated until the nineteenth century.

bosnia
Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in 1377. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463. Herzegovina would follow in 1482, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527.

croatia
The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced tremendous changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed, the Ottomans nonetheless allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity - a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Within this sandžak (and eventual vilayet) of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.
The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam)[3], while a significant number of Sephardi Jews arrived following their expulsion from Spain in the late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, although on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded and their numbers dwindled. The Orthodox community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and Podrinje, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the 19th century. Meanwhile, the schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.

romania
The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310, and Moldavia by Dragoş around 1352.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania. In addition to its unique architecture, the castle is famous because of persistent myths that it was once the home of Vlad III Dracula.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.

TheBrightSideOfTheTito

czekamy na post od Elli Smile

chorwat · Gość

jakie jest prawdopodobieństwo, ze konrad polański może być synem pani polańskiej?

Zulka

Myślę, że małe. Z tego, co pamiętam, to mówiła, że jej syn nie jest zbyt dobry z języków, a poza tym chyba nie studiuje na UG, a na pewno nie na naszym wydziale:)

maniło

dobry tu ela
a to cos dla was

maniło

To make sense of the rapid changes during the last two hundred years of Balkan history, we need some sense of what went before, by looking at the Habsburg and Ottoman "old regimes" in the Early Modern period. The Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire are often (and usefully) presented together as natural rivals: one Catholic, the other Muslim; one western and European, the other eastern and Asian.

By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became the controlling force in the region,. In the past 550 years, because of the frequent Ottoman wars in Europe fought in and around the Balkans, and the comparative Ottoman isolation from the mainstream of economic advance (reflecting the shift of Europe's commercial and political centre of gravity towards the Atlantic), the Balkans has been the least developed part of Europe
.Ottoman rule over the Balkans was characterized by centuries of bloody struggle for freedom and protracted periods of stalemate with the Habsburgs along the border in Hungary as well as anti-Turkish propaganda in Europe, and with invasions from the east.

After conquering Syria, Egypt, parts of the Arabian peninsula, Mesopotamia and North Africa as far as Algeria, Sultan Suleiman "the Magnificent" overran Moldavia and Bessarabia (in today's Romania) in the 1520s. At the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, his army killed 25,000 Hungarian knights and their king. The Battle of Mohacs in 1526 ended Hungarian rule over Croatia, and most of Croatia was ruled by the Ottomans.
The Ottoman forces reached their European high water mark in 1529 when they failed to take Vienna by siege.
The Ottoman Empire has had a low reputation in modern times and is sometimes dismissed as a brutal creation of conquest. Such a view overlooks the sophisticated, complex structures that made the early Ottoman Empire a powerful and civilized place.
The dynastic principle Dynastic rule was principle behind the Ottoman state. In this, Turkey reflected medieval practice all over Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean. The country consisted of the accumulated conquered lands of the Ottoman ruling house (named after the border lord Osman) and that land was passed down in the family. By the time of the Balkan conquests, the Ottoman rulers were no longer simply tribal "beys" but "sultans" who were full masters of secular life. A state treasury had appeared, distinct from the leader's private purse. To create a sophisticated state apparatus, the Ottomans freely adopted useful institutions from the societies they conquered.
The Islamic principle
Islam was the key principle for Ottoman society. Political, cultural and legal forms followed Islamic law . The sultan was recognized as God's agent in the world.
Jews, Christians and Muslims worshipped the same God. The Islamic conquerors tolerated the other two religions, at a time when toleration was rare in Europe.. In the Ottoman administration, talented men of all faiths could fulfill at least limited roles. For peasants, the finality of Ottoman victory also meant an end to centuries of wars between Serbs, Bulgars, Byzantines and Crusaders, and thus offered stability. Ottoman taxes were lower than the taxes of the conquered Balkan Christian kingdoms.
How the principles worked together
three principles -- Islam, the dynasty and the military -- acted together in the Ottoman Empire. As head of state, the Sultan sat at the top of a pyramid.
the power of the sultan had no theoretical limit so long as Islamic law was upheld. The sultan was not just an absolute ruler in an abstract sense: many of his operatives were in fact his slaves. Slaves were often given their freedom as a reward for service and their children were born free, not into slavery.
The "Devshirme"
One of the most exotic Ottoman institutions used slavery to seek out persons of talent, with potential advantages for both the state and the slave. This was the "devshirme" or child-contribution,
When recruits for the military were needed, Christian boys were confiscated from the population as slaves and converted to Islam. As slaves, these boys became absolute dependents of the sultan. They were not used for the army alone: after growing up and being trained, they took on all kinds of roles in the imperial establishment. They were treated well and could aspire to power and wealth. The brightest of these children were educated in the law, foreign languages, the sciences, sports and administrative skills and then entered the sultan's "Inner Service". Promoted on the basis of skill, they could grow up to be provincial governors, treasury officials, physicians, architects, judges and high officials, and helped to run the empire. They could marry, if their careers permitted it, and their children were free Muslims. So desirable were these positions during the Ottoman heyday, that some rural Christian families bribed officials to select their sons. Because the "devshirme" was levied as a tribute on the conquered, it involved only the non-Muslim population, but some Muslim families also bribed officials to select their children illegally, in the hope of placing relatives in powerful offices.

children with less talent went into the military and formed the "janissary" infantry, the 30,000 men kept under arms as garrisons in key fortresses and as the core of the sultan's army. The janissaries were supported by specialists such as armor makers and an Artillery Corps supervised by experts, some of them renegades from Western Europe.

Limits on the dynastic principle
The sultan was the core of the Ottoman state. When a ruling sultan was weak or incompetent, the state suffered.
Several Ottoman practices worsened the situation. To avoid civil war, it had been Ottoman practice to murder all the brothers of each new sultan when he came to power. Thereafter the oldest male member of the house became the new sultan, and the other male Ottomans were confined in the so-called "golden cage" of the palace and harem.
New forces
By this time the downward spiral was nearly complete. The interlocking principles of Ottoman society were too complex for reform: instead new forces began to appear. These included opportunistic merchants who lived by border smuggling. These "conquering Balkan Orthodox merchants" (as one scholar dubbed them) included Greek ship-captains who owned a schooner or two, Serbian pig farmers who drove hogs to markets in Hungary, and Bulgarian dockside traders who imported Russian furs. These were the kind of people who created the revolutions that completed the pattern of Ottoman decline.
[

With the failed Siege of Vienna in 1683 began the prolonged agony of the Ottoman Empire, The Battle of Vienna took place on September 12, 1683 after Vienna had been besieged by the Ottoman Empire for two months. The battle broke the advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, and marked the political hegemony of the Habsburg dynasty in central Europe.
The large-scale battle was won by Polish-Austrian-German forces led by King of Poland John III Sobieski against the Ottoman Empire army commanded by Grand Vizier Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha.
So finally the Habsburg Empire won the competition between Catholic and Muslim words.

Murek

Dobry pomysł z tymi notatkami, tym bardziej, że nie chce mi się notować zazwyczaj :]

Murek

Mógłby ktoś wrzucić zestaw pytań jaki był do tej pory na "teścikach"?? Chciałbym uzupełnić luki przed kołem :p

schizzm

Trzeba było chodzić na zajęcia Razz

szanowny użytkowniku Mureek Razz

Ines

Mówisz - Masz Wink

... - X century:

1. What was the oldest culture? (Indo-European)
2. Time of Roman Invasion? (?)
3. What tribes lived at the begining of A.D (?)
4. The years of catholic per..sth?!? (340-370)
5. When did the Slavs come and how? (500 A.D.; in successive waves)
6. When did Croats and Serbes arrive? (610-641)
7. Glagolic alphabet - invented when and by who? (850 r. - by Cyril and Methodius)
8. When was the Great Schism? (1054 r.)
9. Who were the leaders of churches after schism? (pope & patriarch)

XI - XIII century:

10. Which year did Bulgaria come? (1185 czy 1018?)
11. Which empire conquered the Balkans? (Hungary)
12. Which people lived from IV century B.C. (Thracians)
13. When did Borys I adopted Orthodox Christianity (880)
14. What the Greeks thought about Bulgarians and what they did to them? (they called them 'barbarians' and sent them to fight with Byzantines)
15. What are similarities with Poland? (insurections)
16. When was Serbia christianized ? (X century - 900 r.)
17. Name any Serbian king. (Costantin Bodin)
18. Under whose influence was Croatia? (Vatican)
19. Who did Croatia unite with in XII cen.? (Hungary)
20. Under what rule was Bosnia? (Byzantium, Croatia, Serbia) ?
21. Who was Kulin? (Ban, vassal, successful, strong and good ruler)
22. What did he do? (rule Smile

, he growth Bosnia economically)

XIV - XV century:

23. The political situation in XIV cen. in Bulgaria? (feudal princedoms, B. was independent)
24. Why was Wladislav the I popular? (he helped in the battle in Warna in 1444 r., he lost; he was a national hero)
25. Which empire conquered Bulgaria, Bosnia i Romania? (Ottoman Empire)
26. Which family won the power in Bosnia in 1422? (Kotromanić)
27. When did Bosnia become an independent Kingdom? (1370)
28. Who was Stefan Tvrtko? (he crowded himself. he was king of Serbs, Bosnia, Seaside and the Western Lands)
29. Who did Croatia unite with? (Hungary - personal union)
30. Which family was famous in Croatia? (Šubić)
31. How long did Stefan the great rule? (47 years)
32. Who did he defeat in 1375? (Ottoman Empire)
33. Who was Blood the III? (Drakula)

XVI - XVII century:

34. What were the 2. controlling forces in XVI cen.? (Ottomans & Habsburgs)
35. What happened in 1526, who with who etc. (battle of Mohacs, Suleiman defeat Ludwik II?, Hungary for sure (cheak it in Maniło speach Smile

; and what happened - Hungary was devided)
36. Which part of the Balkans did Suleiman take? (Basserabia, Croatia, Vienna, Hungary, Romania)
37. Say sth about the law in Ottoman Empire. (lawer taxes than in other Christian Kingdoms; tolerance)
38. What was Devshirme? (institution who trains Slavic boys to became a severs of Sultan) ?
39. What was Janissary? (Sultan's army - mostly artilery, cove (trzon of army)
40. What happened to the brothers of Sultan? (they were killed,. murdered)
41. Who created a revolution in the Ottoman Empire? (Greek ship-captains ad Bulgarian sailers, Serbian pig farmers, Bulgarian dockside traders)
42. Who defeated at battle of the Ottomans? (John the III Sobieski, 1683 - Vienna)
43. Who was Mustafa Pasha? (turkish ruler, he died in battle at Vienna)

APEL DO LUDU!!
Bardzo proszę podać odpowiedzi do pogrubionych pytań lub napisać które może są prawidłowe, albo nieprawidłowe. I jak się coś nie zgadza.

Murek

Wielkie dzięki za pytania ;]

Sztywna

odp na 2 z Iwszej grupy to chyba 2nd BC, a w pyt 4 chodzi chyba o PERSECUTION czyli prześladowania.
odp na 1 z IIgiej gr to raczej 1185, domyślam się że chodzi o come independent czy jakoś takoś, w 20 z tego co wyczytałam to under Bulgarian i Croatian. ale pewnie sami sie wszyscy domyśleliscie o co kaman więc zapewne moja pomoc jest wątpliwa Wink

Ines

Dzięki!!

na persecution bym nie wpadła Smile

Swoją drogą... z tego co pamiętam nie wspominałam nic o prześladowaniach ale to szczegół...